[Code 1972, §4-1; CC 1988 §4-1]
A.
A person
is guilty of animal abuse when a person:
1.
Intentionally or purposely kills an animal in any manner not allowed
by or expressly exempted from the provisions of RSMo., Sections 578.005
to 578.023;
2.
Purposely, intentionally or recklessly causes injury, suffering or
pain to an animal;
3.
Abandons an animal in any place without making provisions for its
adequate care;
4.
Overworks or overloads an animal, or drives or works an animal unfit
to work; or
5.
Having ownership or custody of an animal willfully fails to provide
adequate care or adequate control.
[Code 1970, §22-8; CC 1988 §4-2]
A.
It
is unlawful for any person to:
1.
Own, possess, keep or train any dog, with the intent that such dog
shall be engaged in an exhibition of fighting with another dog;
2.
For amusement or gain, cause any dog to fight with another dog, or
cause any dogs to injure each other; or
3.
Permit any act as described in Subparagraph (1) or (2) above to be
done on any premises under his charge or control, or aid or abet any
such act.
B.
It is unlawful for any person to be knowingly present, as a spectator, at any place, building or structure where preparations are being made for an exhibition of the fighting of dogs, with the intent to be present at such preparations, or to be knowingly present at such exhibition or at any other fighting or injuring, as described in Subsection A(2) above with the intent to be present at such exhibition, fighting, or injuring.
C.
Nothing
in this Section shall be construed to prohibit:
1.
The use of dogs in the management of livestock by the owner of such
livestock or his employees or agents or other persons in lawful custody
of such livestock;
2.
The use of dogs in hunting; or
3.
The training of dogs or the use of equipment in the training of dogs
for any purpose not prohibited by law.
[Code 1972, §22-8; CC 1988 §4-3; Ord. No. 2004-2597 §I, 9-28-2004]
A.
It
is unlawful for any person to keep or use, or in any way be connected
with or interested in the management of, or to receive money for the
admission of any person to any place kept or used for the purpose
of fighting or baiting any bull, bear, cock or other creature.
B.
It
shall be unlawful for any person to encourage, aid or assist or be
present thereat, or to permit or suffer any place belonging to him
or under his control to be so kept or used.
[Code 1972, §4-5; CC 1988 §4-4; Ord. No. 2004-2597 §I, 9-28-2004]
No person shall at any time ride, drive or permit to be ridden
or driven any horse, pony or mule over or upon any sidewalk within
the City. Nor shall any person permit such an animal to run at large
over any sidewalk.
[Code 1972, §4-8; CC 1988 §4-5; Ord. No. 2004-2597 §I, 9-28-2004]
A.
No
person shall own, keep or use any yard, pen or place on his premises,
or on premises occupied by him or under his charge or control, in
this City in or upon which any number of cattle, swine, horses, sheep,
boars or other animals, or any kind of fowl unless said premises is
zoned "A-1" Agricultural or has an appropriately approved commercial
zoning for such activities. Such premises shall be kept in such a
manner as to not become offensive or annoying to the public or persons
residing in this City or to emit any offensive or unhealthy smell
or odor.
B.
Any
person violating any provision of this Section shall upon conviction
be deemed guilty of committing a nuisance.
[Code 1972, §4-9; CC 1988 §4-6; Ord. No. 2004-2597 §I, 9-28-2004]
A.
No
person shall be allowed to erect or maintain any house, pen or place
for the slaughter of any cattle, hogs, sheep or other animals, and
no person shall slaughter any such cattle, hogs, sheep or other animals
within the City.
B.
Any
person violating any provisions of this Section shall upon conviction
be deemed guilty of committing a nuisance.
[Code 1972, §4-13; CC 1988 §4-7; Ord. No. 2004-2597 §I, 9-28-2004]
A.
The
owner or person having charge of any dead animal shall within twenty-four
(24) hours cause the carcass to be removed from the City. In no case
shall such owner or person permit such carcass to remain in the open
air in this City until it becomes offensive in smell.
B.
Any
person violating any provision of this Section shall upon conviction
be deemed guilty of committing a nuisance.
[Ord. No. 2004-2614 §I, 10-26-2004, effective January 1, 2005; Ord. No. 2006-2745 §I, 11-28-2006]
A.
License Requirements. All dogs and cats six (6) months of
age and older being kept or harbored in the City of Aurora must be
licensed. Upon proof of initial rabies vaccination as required by
ordinance, a one (1) year license will be issued for the dog or cat.
Upon a rabies booster vaccination at one (1) year as required by ordinance,
a three (3) year license will be issued. The license must be renewed
every three (3) years when the required rabies vaccination is obtained.
Unlicensed dogs and cats that have been previously vaccinated for
rabies can be issued a license upon proof of vaccination for the duration
of the remaining effective vaccine immunization period. No other prorating
of license fees is permitted.
B.
License Fees.
|
|
License Period
|
Spayed/Neutered
|
Non-Spayed/Neutered
|
|---|---|---|---|
|
|
One (1) year license
|
$3.00
|
$5.00
|
|
|
Three (3) year license
|
$9.00
|
$15.00
|
|
|
Partial three (3) year license
|
$3.00 per year
|
$5.00 per year
|
C.
Administrative Fees. A fee of one dollar ($1.00) will be
added to the issuance of each license as compensation for the issuing
private entity.
D.
Obtaining Licenses. Dog and cat licenses are issued by licensed
practicing veterinary clinics in the City of Aurora. The City of Aurora
will provide all necessary licenses and tags for issuance by the approved
clinics.
E.
Remittance Of Fees To The City. All approved veterinarian
clinics will be required to remit all fees for licenses and tags to
the City of Aurora on a quarterly basis.
F.
Proof
of licensing shall be produced upon request of animal control officer
or other appropriate City Official.
G.
Enforcement — Penalties. The Police Department is hereby authorized and directed to carry out and enforce all of the provisions of this Article. Upon conviction of a violation of Section 210.075, the minimum fine shall be not less than one dollar ($1.00) nor more than five hundred dollars ($500.00) for each separate violation.
[Code 1972, §4-14; CC 1988 §4-26; Ord. No. 2004-2597, 9-28-2004; Ord. No. 2004-2619 §I, 10-26-2004]
A.
All
of the owners of animals in the City of Aurora, Missouri are encouraged
to exercise responsible animal ownership. Every person who is the
owner of any animal(s), and who resides or maintains such animal(s)
within the City, is responsible for the control and behavior of their
animal(s), and must avoid having such animal(s) create a nuisance
for other property/occupants.
B.
Every
person who is the owner of a dog(s), or has in his charge any dog(s),
and who resides or maintains such dog(s) within the City, is required
to keep such dog(s) confined to the owner's premises at all times,
or confined to a leash, or portable kennel when taken off the premises
in the company of the animal's owner or custodian.
[Code 1972, §4-15; CC 1988 §4-27; Ord. No. 2004-2597 §I, 9-28-2004; Ord. No. 2004-2619 §I, 10-26-2004]
A.
There
is hereby established an Animal Pound for the City to be located west
of the City at the disposal plant. All animal(s) found running at
large will be collected and confined at the pound until redeemed or
legally disposed of after the minimum five (5) day holding period.
B.
In
payment for this service of impoundment, the City will pay to the
Animal Control Officer a monthly salary and fees as provided in the
budget; provided, that the Animal Control Officer shall give credit
for all redemption fees paid to him and submit an itemized statement
of all charges and credits to the City Council monthly.
[Code 1972, §4-16; CC 1988 §4-28; Ord. No. 2004-2597 §I, 9-28-2004; Ord. No. 2004-2619 §I, 10-26-2004]
There is hereby established a minimum holding period of five
(5) days, not including the date of apprehension, during which the
Animal Pound shall confine, house and feed, in a humane manner, all
animal(s) apprehended and impounded by the City under the provisions
of this Article.
[Code 1972, §4-17; CC 1988 §4-29; Ord. No. 2004-2597 §I, 9-28-2004; Ord. No. 2004-2619 §I, 10-26-2004; Ord. No. 2007-2758 §I, 5-8-2007]
At the end of the holding period mentioned in Section 210.100, any animal(s) not redeemed will be taken to the Southwest Missouri Humane Society surrendered to C.A.R.E. or other such approved animal shelter or adopted to responsible citizens or humanely euthanized by a licensed veterinarian.
[Code 1972, §4-18; CC 1988 §4-30; Ord. No. 92-2075, 5-11-1992; Ord. No. 2004-2597 §I, 9-28-2004; Ord. No. 2004-2619 §I, 10-26-2004]
The owner or custodian may reclaim any dog impounded in the Animal Pound by presenting to the City, or its agent in charge of the Animal Pound, sufficient evidence of ownership, evidence of compliance with vaccination requirements contained in Section 210.180(B). In addition, payment is required of a redemption fee of ten dollars ($10.00), plus any penalty assesssed under Section 210.130(B), plus the sum of two dollars ($2.00) per day for each day the animal is impounded to pay for the cost of feeding during impoundment. The payment of any fees for redemption requirements shall not constitute a bar to the prosecution for violation of any of the provisions of this Chapter.
[Code 1972, §4-19; CC 1988 §4-31; Ord. No. 90-1997, §2, 2-12-1990; Ord. No. 2004-2597 §I, 9-28-2004; Ord. No. 2004-2619 §I, 10-26-2004]
A.
No person who is the owner or is responsible for or has in his charge any animal(s), who is kept or maintained and resides in the City of Aurora, Missouri and such animal(s) by loud, frequent, habitual barking, howling or yelping, or making other offensive noises or sounds which shall annoy, or cause damage to the property of, or disturb the peace, or otherwise annoy or disturb or destroy the property of any person or neighborhood shall be punished in accordance with the penalty as expressed in Subsection (B) of this Section.
B.
Upon a written and signed complaint by the party complaining using the proper and usual Police procedure of reporting a property owner/occupant, a representative of the City shall first attempt to contact the owner of the offending animal(s) with a directive to abate the nuisance. If the owner cannot be determined, an animal control officer shall attempt to collect the offending animal(s). Any animal(s) collected will be impounded according to Section 210.090. The penalty for violations of this Section shall be no more than twenty-five dollars ($25.00) for the first (1st) offense, and no more than fifty dollars ($50.00) for a second (2nd) offense within six (6) months of the first.
C.
After three (3) day's notice by the City or a representative thereof to the owner or possessor of such animal(s), or the person occupying the premises where the animal(s) is located, of a violation of Subsection (A), it shall be prima facie evidence of the causing, allowing or permitting by such owner or possessor, so notified, of such violation unless the nuisance has been abated.
[Code 1972, §4-20; CC 1988 §4-32; Ord. No. 2004-2597 §I, 9-28-2004; Ord. No. 2004-2619 §I, 10-28-2004; Ord. No. 2010-2889 §1, 12-14-2010; Ord. No. 2015-3031 §1, 6-9-2015]
Every person keeping or maintaining animal(s) shall keep the
barn, shed, kennel, cattery or pen in which such animal(s) are kept
or maintained in a clean and sanitary condition so that the same will
not emit foul or disagreeable odors and shall not permit any concentration
of manure. Such enclosure shall be large enough to humanely accommodate
the animal(s). Keeping or maintaining five (5) or more animals shall
be deemed to be operating a kennel which is only authorized in an
appropriately zoned area.
[Ord. No. 2015-3031 §1, 6-9-2015]
A.
No household located within the Single-Family Residential Districts,
"R-1", Zoned District shall possess more than four (4) dogs, or four
(4) cats, or a combination of either dogs or cats, provided the combination
of animals shall not exceed more than four (4) animals.
B.
No household located within the Two-Family Residential Districts,
"R-2" or Multiple-Family Residential Districts, "R3" Zone Districts
shall possess more than two (2) dogs, or two (2) cats or a combination
of either dog or cat, provided the combination of animals shall not
exceed more than two (2) animals.
C.
Any household that has more than the prescribed numbers of animals
at the time of the enactment of the ordinance from which this Section
is derived June 9, 2015, may continue to keep the same number of dogs
or cats, provided such persons register these animals with the City
in accordance with the prescribed procedures set forth herein within
six (6) months after the passage of such ordinance upon payment of
all associated fees; provided, however, in no event shall such person
add to or replace such animal.
D.
The City will not issue any business license to operate a kennel
within any residential area of the City.
[Code 1972, §4-21; Ord. No. 86-1905, §2, 4-28-1986; CC 1988 §4-33; Ord. No. 92-2075, 5-11-1992; Ord. No. 2004-2597 §I, 9-28-2004; Ord. No. 2006-2745 §I, 11-28-2006; Ord. No. 2008-2783 §I, 1-22-2008]
The Police Department is hereby authorized and directed to carry out and enforce all of the provisions of this Article. Upon conviction of a violation of Section 210.010, Section 210.080, Section 210.130 or Section 210.140, the minimum fine shall be not less than one dollar ($1.00) nor more than five hundred dollars ($500.00) for each separate violation and shall pay restitution for expenses incurred by retention of animal.
[CC 1988 §4-34; Ord. No. 92-2075, 5-11-1992; Ord. No.
2004-2597 §I, 9-28-2004]
A.
It
is unlawful for any person to own, harbor or possess a vicious dog;
except as allowed by the provisions of this Section of the City Code.
The Municipal Court Judge may declare a dog vicious:
1.
When evidence shows an attack or bite to a human is unprovoked,
2.
When evidence shows an attack upon another domestic animal is unprovoked,
3.
In the absence of a bite, when sufficient evidence is presented to
show the dog or dogs display characteristics such as habitually snapping,
charging, growling, or
4.
Otherwise manifests a disposition to bite, attack or injure any person
or domestic animal or pet if afforded the opportunity, or if in the
judgment of the court it causes any person to have a reasonable fear
of immediate serious physical injury.
B.
It
is unlawful for any person to violate any restriction imposed by this
Section after a dog has been declared a vicious dog by order of the
Municipal Court.
C.
Following
the filing of charges under this Section, upon the affidavit of the
Animal Control Officer or Chief of Police alleging the dog is a vicious
dog and upon the motion of the prosecutor, the Judge of the Municipal
Court may order any of the following:
D.
Any
dog declared vicious by the Judge of the Municipal Court may be ordered
humanely euthanized immediately.
E.
Any
dog owner who owns, keeps or harbors a dog declared vicious by the
Judge of the Municipal Court and not ordered euthanized and as a condition
of residing within the corporate limits of Aurora shall be required
to meet the following mandated restrictions:
1.
The dog or dogs must receive an identification microchip implant
within one (1) week of the order of the Municipal Court. The micro
chip used must be approved by the Animal Control Officer and implanted
by a licensed veterinarian. It shall be a violation of the City Code
for a microchip to be removed unless it is for a medical reason and
then only by a licensed practicing veterinarian. The Animal Control
Officer must be notified immediately of said removal.
2.
The dog or dogs shall be securely confined indoors or in a securely
enclosed and locked kennel or cage. The kennel or cage shall be the
size appropriate to the size of the dog or dogs kept therein and shall
provide adequate ventilation, shade from the sun and protection from
the elements. In the event of a dispute over the appropriate size,
the guidelines of the Missouri Department of Agriculture Regulations
for Animal Care Facilities shall apply. The kennel or cage must be
constructed with nine (9) gauge steel chain link. Such kennel or cage
must have secure sides, a secure top and secure bottom or floor attached
to the sides, or sides must be embedded in the ground. In addition,
the kennel or cage must have a double-blind entrance and must be locked
with a key or a combination lock when such dog or dogs are within
the structure. Any such kennel or cage must be located on the back
half of the concerned property at least twenty-five (25) feet from
the nearest point to the dwelling of another, a church, a school or
place of business of another and must comply with all zoning and building
regulations of the City.
3.
The dog or dogs shall not be allowed by remedy to be removed from
the City to a location outside the City limits.
F.
Any
dog declared vicious by the Judge of the Municipal Court and not ordered
euthanized, and as a condition of residing within the corporate limits
of Aurora may be required to meet any or all of the following restrictions:
1.
The dog or dogs shall be spayed or neutered within one (1) week of
the ruling unless a duly licensed veterinarian documents to the Animal
Control Officer that medical conditions of the dog contradict sterilization.
Such sterilization shall require surgical removal of the gonads. Verification
that sterilization has taken place shall be presented to the Animal
Control Officer by the licensed practicing veterinarian performing
the procedure.
2.
The dog or dogs shall be registered with the City of Aurora each
year with the annual fee to be set at fifty dollars ($50.00).
3.
All owners, keepers or harborers of any vicious dog must maintain
in effect public liability insurance in a single incident amount of
one hundred thousand dollars ($100,000.00) for bodily injury to or
death of any person or persons or for damage to property owned by
any persons which may result from the ownership, keeping or maintenance
of such dog. A one hundred thousand dollar ($100,000.00) surety bond
or letter of credit may be substituted for the insurance policy. All
owners, keepers or harborers of vicious dogs shall present to the
Animal Control Officer a statement from all parties involved certifying
that they have the required insurance policy, surety bond or letter
of credit within ten (10) days of the dog being declared vicious.
4.
When confined indoors, no vicious dog or dogs may be kept on a porch,
patio or in any part of the house, building or structure that would
allow the dog or dogs to exit such building on its own volition. No
such dog or dogs may be kept in a house, building or structure when
the windows are open. No vicious dog may be kept in a house, building
or structure when screen windows or screen doors are the only obstacles
preventing the dog from exiting the structure.
5.
No person shall permit a vicious dog or dogs to go outside its kennel,
cage or secure structure unless that person has the dog or dogs securely
leashed to a buckle collar and on a leash no longer than six (6) feet
in length and that person has physical control of the dog. Such dogs
shall not be leashed to inanimate objects such as trees, posts and
buildings. Additionally, all such dogs on a leash outside the dog's
kennel, cage or secure structure must be muzzled by a humane muzzling
device sufficient to prevent the dog from biting persons or other
animals.
6.
The premises on which the dog or dogs are kept shall be clearly posted
with signage warning the public of the following:
|
|
WARNING
|
|---|---|
|
|
A DOG IS PRESENT ON THIS PROPERTY
THAT HAS BEEN DECLARED VICIOUS
BY THE AURORA MUNICIPAL COURT
|
|
|
The sign shall be visible and capable of being read from the
street, road or highway that abuts the premises. In addition, the
sign must include a picture or symbol that conveys the idea of a vicious
dog to small children that cannot read.
|
7.
Any dog or dogs declared vicious by the Municipal Court cannot be
sold, given away, or ownership otherwise transferred without the expressed
permission of the Animal Control Officer.
8.
To assure compliance with the court-ordered restrictions, the Animal
Control Officer is hereby authorized to conduct unannounced inspections
of such frequency so as to determine if said restrictions are being
met.
9.
Refusal or failure to comply with any of the mandated or court-ordered
restrictions or authorized inspection shall constitute a violation
of the City Code and, in addition, shall be considered as justifiable
grounds for the Judge of the Municipal Court to order further restrictions
or euthanization of the dog or dogs.
G.
Any
dog or dogs maintained and utilized by any governmental law enforcement
agency shall not be considered a vicious dog so long as it is maintained
and utilized for law enforcement purposes.
[CC 1988 §4-35; Ord. No. 92-2075, 5-11-1992; Ord. No.
2004-2597 §I, 9-28-2004]
It is unlawful for any unauthorized person to break open the
pound or to attempt to do so, to take or let out any animals therefrom,
or to take or attempt to take from any officer any dog taken up by
him or her in compliance with this Chapter or in any matter whatever
to interfere with or hinder such officer in the discharge of his duties
under the provisions of this Chapter.
[Code 1972, §4-22; CC 1988 §§4-46 —
4-48; Ord. No. 86-1905, §2, 4-28-1986; Ord. No. 92-2075, 5-11-1992; Ord. No.
2004-2597 §I, 9-28-2004]
A.
Definitions. For purposes of this Section, the following
words and phrases shall have the meanings respectively ascribed to
them by this Subsection:
- AFFECTED WITH RABIES
- An animal shall be considered to be affected with rabies when manifesting the principal characteristic symptoms of rabies as described in the standard textbooks treating upon the diseases of domestic animals.
- RABIES
- The term "rabies" shall mean hydrophobia.
B.
Vaccination Required.
1.
Every person residing within the City owning, keeping, harboring
or permitting a dog or cat to remain on premises shall have every
such animal vaccinated against rabies by a licensed veterinary in
compliance with Section III of the Compendium of Animal Rabies Prevention
and Control issued by the National Association of State Public Health
Veterinarians. In summary, all dogs and cats over the age of three
(3) months shall be vaccinated with an appropriately licensed vaccine.
Every animal shall receive a booster vaccination one (1) year after
initial vaccination, regardless of age at initial vaccination or product
used, and triennial vaccinations vaccinations thereafter. Should there
be a rabies epidemic in the City and quarantine is declared, all dogs
and cats whose vaccination is more than twelve (12) months old shall
immediately be revaccinated according to recommendations by the State
Public Health Department.
2.
Vaccinated animals shall be identified with metal or plastic tags
or microchips. The City hereby adopts the standard tag system put
forth in the Compendium of Animal Rabies Prevention and Control to
aid in the administration of animal rabies control procedures. A rabies
certificate issued by a licensed veterinarian may also serve as proof
of vaccination.
C.
Management Of Animals That Bite.
1.
A healthy dog or cat or ferret that bites a person shall be confined
and observed daily for ten (10) days at the animal pound or at a licensed
veterinary facility at the owner's expense. Such animal shall be evaluated
by a veterinarian at the first (1st) sign of illness during confinement.
Any illness in the animal shall be reported immediately to the local
Health Department. If signs suggestive of rabies develop, the animal
shall be euthanized, prepared and shipped for testing at a State-approved
laboratory by a licensed veterinarian. Any stray or unwanted dog or
cat or ferret that bites a person shall be euthanized and the head
submitted for rabies examination.
2.
Other biting animals, which might have exposed a person to rabies,
shall be reported immediately to the local Health Department. Prior
vaccination of an animal may not preclude the necessity for euthanasia
and testing if the period of virus shedding is unknown for that species.
Management of animals other than dogs, cats and ferrets will be deferred
to State or local Health Department officials.
[Ord. No. 98-2340 §1, 9-8-1998; Ord. No. 2004-2597 §I, 9-28-2004]
A.
Adoption Policy. Responsible persons may adopt a pet from
the Aurora Municipal Animal Facility in accordance with the following
regulations:
1.
Persons must be eighteen (18) years of age or older to adopt. In
some cases, proof of age is required.
2.
Valid identification must be provided with name and present address.
3.
No persons under the influence of alcohol or drugs can adopt.
4.
Animals must be spayed or neutered within four (4) months of adoption.
Failure to provide proof of such procedure will result in a fifty
dollar ($50.00) fine and surrender of the animal to the Animal Control
Officer.
5.
Dogs are not allowed to go out as guard dogs or to be trained as
an attack dog. Watch dogs are acceptable.
6.
The adopters are required to take the animal(s) for a medical checkup
within ten (10) days of the adoption date.
7.
The adopter is allowed to exchange for another animal within thirty
(30) days of the adoption date. If the exchange is made within thirty
(30) days, the adopter is allowed up to six (6) months to adopt another
animal but the adoption fee is not refunded. The only exception will
be a pup/dog that is claimed by the owner.
8.
The City of Aurora does not guarantee the health of any animal. Adopters
are responsible for all medical care required by the adopted animal.
The City does not test for heartworms, internal parasites or give
rabies shots. The City of Aurora is not responsible for fees incurred
by the adopter.
9.
If a previous animal in the adopter's home has died of an airborne
disease, adopters must wait one (1) month before any animals of the
same kind can be brought into the home unless they have permission
from their veterinarian.
10.
Puppies that are six (6) to eight (8) weeks of age can only be left
alone for four (4) hours a day at the most.
11.
The adopter must relinquish animal to its rightful owner if it is
claimed within fourteen (14) days of the adoption date.
12.
The City of Aurora reserves the right to refuse adoption.
13.
Although the adoption fees are required in advance, the adopted animal
is not legally owned by the adopters until the spaying or neutering
has been completed.
14.
The City of Aurora may examine and inquire about said animal at any
time. If not satisfied with the conditions, said animal shall be returned
to the City.
15.
Adopters must sign a written contract with the City.
16.
Adopters must not sell, trade or abandon said animal in any way.
17.
No person or persons shall be allowed to adopt more than two (2)
dogs in a twelve (12) month period.
[Ord. No. 2004-2597 §I, 9-28-2004]
A.
No
person shall own, keep or use any yard, pen or place on his premises,
or premises occupied by him or under his charge or control in this
City, in or upon which any non-domesticated animals shall be kept.
B.
Should
there be a dispute as to whether an animal is domesticated or non-domesticated,
a permit may be issued by the Animal Control Officer with Council
approval on a case-by-case basis.
C.
Any
animal deemed a threat to the public health will be immediately surrendered
to the Animal Control Officer or appropriate State Conservation or
Humane Society official to be housed at an appropriately licensed
facility until permanent resolution can be made.
